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#201 - The Nature of Anthropology
Introduces the field of anthropology and emphasizes a holistic approach to the discipline, focusing on scientific techniques and the value of each society studied. Topics include how anthropology developed and how it has changed over time; influential theorists, including Charles Darwin, Franz Boas, and Margaret Mead; and cultural relativism and ethnocentrism. Examples from the native cultures of the Turkana tribe, the Kwakiutl, Tasmanian Aboriginals, and the Omaha tribe illustrate the main points.

#202 - The Nature of Culture
Defines "culture" as a unique set of values, beliefs, and practices that enables a group of people to reap the maximum benefits from their physical surroundings. This program begins to answer such questions as how culture develops and how it changes and adapts to the world around it. The Txukarrame Indians and the Boran tribes of Kenya are examined to illustrate the degree of variety, as well as the parallels, among cultures. The program concludes by showing the devastating results of one culture's inability to adapt.

#203 - How Cultures Are Studied
Anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon reviews his extensive study of the Yanamamo Indians of Venezuela. Over a period of several years, Chagnon spent several months at a time living with the Yanamamo to obtain a complete ethnographic understanding of their culture. He explains the meanings of many anthropological terms and the methods he used to conduct his studies and talks about the importance of shedding one's own cultural prejudices.

#204 - Language and Communication
A discussion of the relationship between language and culture and the importance of language in anthropological study. Several linguists address such issues as how language develops and evolves, how it is learned, and how it is transmitted within and between cultures and define the terms linguistics, phonetics, morphemes, and syntax. Case studies of the development of Black English in the U.S. and the revival of a nearly extinct language in Canada illustrate the importance of language in cultural identity. Other topics include the significance of non-verbal communication and symbolism and how language is interpreted through social context and values. Does our language change our perception, or does our perception change our language?

#205 - Psychological Anthropology
Beginning with a definition of enculturation, this program describes Margaret Mead's landmark efforts to document the influence of culture on personality by studying patterns of child rearing in several cultures, including Samoa. Other topics include studies of the concept of national character in Nazi Germany during the 1940s and in Japan, along with criticisms of those efforts. Also, how various societies treat illness and deal with individuals who deviate from accepted norms. Field footage profiles shamans in several societies, including Bali, Laos, the Melemchi of Nepal, and the Yanomamo of Brazil.

#206 - Alejandro Mamani: A Case Study in Psychological Anthropology
A case study of Alejandro Mamani, an elder Aymara Indian whose village is located in the mountains of Bolivia, focuses on his experiences with an unexplained mental illness diagnosed as spiritual possession by Alejandro, his family, and the members of his village. Ethnographers trace the man's suffering as he and his family try to cope with the unpredictability of the illness and the inevitability of death—and wrestle with their own dilemma of whether to move from observation to active participation by offering medicine to the suffering man. As Alejandro deteriorates from a respected leader in his community to one who is totally dependent on his family for survival, the program offers insights into the methods different cultures use to cope with both illness and death.

#207 - Patterns of Subsistence: Food Foragers and Pastoralists
Describes both hunting/gathering and agricultural societies and explores how societies adapt to their environments in finding or raising food. The African !Kung gather nuts, fruits, berries, and roots in their arid climate, and the Mbuti pygmies hunt large game in the African rainforest. The Netsilik Eskimos hunt seals in the Arctic, Nepali sherpas herd zomo (hybrids of yaks) and milk cows, Iranian Basseris search for fertile grazing land for sheep and goats, and a modern forager searches among the discards of an urban area.

#208 - Patterns of Subsistence: Food Producers
Examines several different models of food production and various features of food-producing societies. Examples include the slash-and-burn technique of soil preparation employed by the Yucatec Maya; rituals associated with food production among Melanesian farmers, who practice a hazardous land-diving ritual originally intended to ensure a good yam harvest; and several examples of intensive agriculture, including that practiced by the Khmer in Angkor and by North Americans on the Great Plains. Other societies featured are the Taiwanese and Balinese.

#209 - Economic Anthropology
From generalized reciprocity among the !Kung to the balanced reciprocity of the Yanomamo and the Trobriand Islanders, the economies of many non-Western societies are based on principles other than currency. In the highlands of New Guinea, the Mendi engage both in balanced reciprocity, bartering bride prices in pearl shells, and in redistribution, engaging in cassowary contests in which they give away their holdings to gain prestige. A third system of distribution—the marketplace—is illustrated with scenes of Assante women in Ghana and nomads in Afghanistan.

#210 - The Highland Maya: A Case Study in Economic Anthropology
The complicated "cargo system" of the Mayan Indian populations of southern Mexico and northern Guatemala has evolved over time into an amalgamation of ancient Mayan culture with the Catholicism introduced by the Spanish in the 17th century. Each man is expected to pass through a series of four levels, during which he is obligated to a period of service to his community. At each step, he pays his village a certain percentage of his earned income. In return, he attains a greater degree of responsibility and greater prestige with each level.

#211 - Sex and Marriage
Examines the complex customs of marriage in various cultures throughout the world and the role of sex and sexuality in determining the marriage contract. Among the societies featured are the Turkana tribe of Kenya, Zaire pygmies, the Asante of Ghana, the Mien of Laos, and the Berbers of Morocco. Topics include endogamy, exogamy, patrilineal systems, polygamy, and bride price. A look at the impacts of these customs shows that in most non-Western societies, romantic love plays a lesser role in determining a marriage contract.

#212 - Family and Household
Focuses on how families are organized and defined around the world. Topics include cultural differences in marriage and naming customs, matrilineal vs. patrilineal inheritance lines, nuclear and extended families, polygamy, female-headed households, and child-care arrangements. A look at the Mbuti tribe of Zaire illustrates division of labor between the sexes and how traditions and responsibilities are passed down from parents to children. The traditional Yanomamo and !Kung cultures react to contact with disruptive elements of modern culture, and a family in India copes with the problems that can arise in an interdependent extended family when one member chooses a non-traditional role.

#213 - The Yucatec Maya: A Case Study in Marriage and the Family
Commentary by anthropologist Hubert L. Smith and film footage from his research among the Yucatec Maya follow the lives of two extended families over a period of several years. Members of the highly traditional family of Prudencio Colli Canche share the daily chores and work together to pass on their traditions to the next generation. But the family of Reymundo Colli must cope with change and stress because two sons want to break out of the farming lifestyle, seek more schooling, and move to the city.

#214 - Kinship and Descent (Part 1)
After a brief examination of kinship and descent in the United States, from patterns of children's names to inheritance issues, visits to other cultures show the wide range of descent patterns around the world. Topics include the matrilineal pattern of the Trobriand Islanders, the economic and religious importance of the Mendi clans, and methods of determining descent and defining who is "family" in various places.

#215 - Kinship and Descent (Part 2)
Explores the definitions and roles of "kindred" in various cultures, from food foragers to horticultural groups, as well as how they handle larger political and economic functions. Societies based on intensive agriculture or industry have developed centralized governments to assume organizing functions handled by kinship and descent groups in other societies. Case studies and examples include the kinship terms of the Baruya, Navajo matrilineal village organization, and social patterns in Greek villages that reflect both patrilineal and matrilineal descent practices. Several of the six major systems of classifying kin are diagrammed and illustrated.

#216 - Age, Common Interest, and Stratification
Because human beings require interaction with one another, most large societies include groups formed on bases other than kinship, such as age, common interest, or social stratification. These groups help to organize and structure the larger culture and can serve either to preserve or change the existing society, depending on the values of the group and whether those values do or do not reflect the values of the larger society. Examples covered in the program include the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, a group of African Americans formed around common interests and work-related goals.

#217 - The Aymara: A Case Study in Social Stratification
In northern Bolivia, long-standing cultural attitudes have created a sharp class division between the Spanish-speaking mestizos and the subordinate Aymara Indians. Although a revolution in 1952 brought some changes, the Aymara are still largely bound by the economic and social patterns that existed before the revolution. This class system, typical of much of Latin America, is apparent not only in the fields, but also in religious practices, celebratory fiestas, and even classrooms. While seeking medical help for a poor child, a mestizo teacher must battle the economic subordination of the peasantry.

#218 - Political Organization
All societies need political organization—a system of leadership, authority, and cooperation—to operate successfully and survive. This program explores the four major types of political organizations existing today, how they developed, and the types of societies for which they are best suited. The !Kung, the Mendi, and the Kpelle provide examples of the band, the tribe, and the chiefdom, respectively, while an examination of the theocratic government of Tibet uncovers some of the complications inherent in the survival of the modern state, characterized by centralized power, a code of law, and the authority to use coercion to impose that law.

#219 - Social Control
An examination of how societies establish and maintain control of interactions among their citizens, including the differences between internal controls, such as religious dictates, and external controls, such as a code of law. Also, methods of enforcement; the various functions law serves; and the concepts of formal and informal dispute settlement, negotiation, adjudication, and mediation. A historical overview of the phenomenon of war examines how world view is integral to explaining why and how wars occur.

#220 - Religion and Magic
All societies incorporate some form of religion as a way to provide meaning and explain the unknown. Several examples from around the world define the difference between religion and magic: American Indians practice animism, attempting to restore the balance between good and evil by the ritualistic carvings of a medicine mask. The Highland Maya have combined ancient beliefs and Roman Catholicism, and the complicated ritual of Eka Dasa Tudra celebrated by the Balinese links the worlds of gods, people, and demons. Other topics include modern Hare Krishnas in Los Angeles, revitalization movements such as that of the Mormons, and the place of religion in modern industrial nations. A brief discussion of the role science plays in modern societies looks at its relationship to religion.

#221 - The Asmat of New Guinea: A Case Study in Religion and Magic
The Asmat, a cannibalistic society of western New Guinea, use religion and magic as tools for survival in a world they perceive as hostile and threatening. They carve sacred bis poles from mangrove trees to release spirits of the dead and butcher and skin sago palms as if they were human to release the starch that is the mainstay of their diet. Games for children are designed to teach them skills of headhunting; during a feast, coconuts are consumed to symbolize eating the brains of one's enemy. This case study also considers how economic development and modernization, including the government's ban on headhunting, will affect the Asmats' religious beliefs and practices.

#222 - The Arts
The arts perform a variety of functions in various cultures: filling the need for individual creative expression, expressing a people's beliefs about the unknown or spiritual world, and reflecting cultural values and ideas. Among the examples featured are body painting among the tribes of the Amazon River basin in Brazil; the monuments of the Egyptian Empire; sand painting by Buddhist monks in Tibet; the music of Mexican Americans in the Southwestern United States; and several contemporary Western artists and artworks, including a performance artist, the AIDS quilt, and Christo's Running Fence.

#223 - New Orleans Black Indians: A Case Study in the Arts
The Black Indian tribes of New Orleans began their Mardi Gras celebration in the 1880s. This history describes the origins of the tribes as well as Mardi Gras and the distinctive folk-art features of the celebration, including songs, dances, and elaborate costumes. Participants explain the historic symbolism and intense cultural relationships expressed by the festival.

#224 - Cultural Change
Explores the impact of change on various indigenous peoples and cultures, focusing on innovation, diffusion, and colonialism. Examples include the dramatic effect of modern agricultural techniques on the traditional horticultural economy of Mali, where poor planning has made the transition difficult; the struggles of the !Kung in Africa, where conservation and modernization have clashed; and the impact of mining in the northern regions of the Brazilian Amazon on the native Yanomamo Indians. A look at the Mayan Indians of Mexico offers some more positive effects of modern technology and culture change. In this region, roads, electricity, and running water have reached the native populations, yet many traditional agricultural ways still survive.

#225 - Cricket the Trobriand Way: A Case Study in Cultural Change
A look at the game of cricket on the Trobriand Islands illustrates the anthropological concept of "syncretism," the process by which people borrow elements of a foreign culture and combine them with native customs, forming a unique amalgamation. The British introduced cricket to the islands in the 19th century, and the islanders have since modified its rules and combined it with native customs including magic, dance, and chanting.

#226 - The Future of Humanity
A final overview addresses the compelling problem of preserving the diversity of human cultures in a world that often appears to be rushing toward a one-world culture and presents examples of how indigenous peoples are reclaiming and preserving their heritage. A Kwakiutl woman describes how her people negotiated the return of masks and other artifacts from Canada's National Museum of Man. A visit to the Yanomamo shows how they are learning to defend their lands against outsiders and explores the effects of the Venezuelan government's experiment with a biosphere reserve encompassing the Yanomamo territory. (Final program in series)

#900980 - Block Feed: Programs 205-208